This course is part of a series of free online linguistics courses for language learners. This course has the following requirements and recommendations:
- Required: Have taken our Intro to the Grammar of Words (basic morphology) or possess equivalent knowledge
- Required: Any previous experience studying one or more foreign languages
- Recommended: Purchase, study and complete all exercises in Native Grammar: How Languages Work
- Recommended: Be in the process of learning or start to learn a new foreign language
Introduction
At this point, you already have a basic understanding of the grammar of words - morphemes, affixes, periphrasis, and parts of speech. If you're unfamiliar with those concepts, please study my intro to morphology before you progress.
We will now turn to the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. You will learn key concepts and work toward a basic understanding of syntax, the structure of sentences. We will consider some traditional and more recent linguistic ideas about syntax and build a foundation for future studies, including generative grammar and typology.
This page includes explanations, instructional videos with audio, and practice activities, all designed to help you learn the basics of syntax. The course is divided into the following sections:
Approaches to syntax
Prescriptive & descriptive grammar
One way to approach grammar is to view it as a matter of right and wrong speech, perhaps corrected by an authority or checked by a language teacher. This characterizes a prescriptive approach, which mandates how language should and should not be used.
Linguists developed an alternative approach, a way of observing and understanding how native speakers use a language. This perspective is known as descriptive, since it describes how language actually works. We will follow the lead of modern linguistics and prioritize description over prescription as we approach syntax.
Generative grammar
More recent studies in syntax often focus on ways not only of describing the structure of languages, but in finding what undergirds language and allows speakers to generate sentences. This approach is known as generative grammar. I will present some concepts from generative grammar, but will leave bulk of this study for another lesson.
Well-formedness
By now some of you are suspicious that modern syntacticians might disagree fundamentally and in principle with your previous language teachers. While that may or may not be true, one common perspective shared by both is that native speakers are not good judges of grammar. Still, linguists will add that speakers of a language are great at detecting what is acceptable (when a sentence makes sense and sounds native), rather than what is grammatical (the rules underlying their sentences).
Since the rules of grammar are a system that every native speaker has, terms like "correct" and "incorrect" have become less meaningful. Linguists instead talk about whether a sentence is well-formed and acceptable to native speakers. When it comes to grammar, linguists turn to the rules themselves rather than the speakers, and prefer to discuss adequacy: do these rules explain what native speakers are doing?
Sentences & clauses
Sentences are characterized by words that share a structure & form a single expression. In English and many other languages, sentences end in some form of punctuation.
| English | He wrote the book on the subject. | ||
| Modern Greek | Δεν ξέρω πως να το πω. | ||
| 'I don't know how to say it.' | |||
| Japanese | あの人は日本語が出来ます。 | ||
| 'He speaks Japanese.' |
A sentence typically has at least one clause. Traditionally, we say that a clause is made up of a subject - the performer of the verb's action - and a predicate - the verb and its objects. The main verb in a clause is typically a finite verb, marked for tense/aspect/mood information and agreeing in person and number with the subject, such as play-s in he plays the guitar. Non-finite verbs include infinitives like to play along with participles & gerunds like playing.
| subject | predicate |
| Her friend | speaks many languages. |
| (finite verb speaks) | |
| You | have never understood it. |
| (finite verb have + non-finite understood) |
Some constructions contain one finite verb with a non-finite verb, like try to reserve in I tried to reserve a room. These are counted as part of the same clause. Also, notice that a sentence can contain more than one clause: I tried to reserve a room, but the hotel was booked has two clauses, one based around the construction tried to reserve and the other around was booked.
Types of clauses
Clauses come in a variety of shapes and sizes. A matrix clause or independent clause contains a finite verb and can stand as an expression in its own right. A dependent clause or complement clause contains a finite verb, but is structured to be attached to a main clause. A small clause occurs as part of another clause and often contains a non-finte verb.
| matrix clause | small clause | complement clause |
| He saw the movie. | ||
| She wanted | to stay. | |
| She told him | that he should stay, too. |
| matrix clause | small clause | complementary clause | small clause |
| I tried | to tell him | that he should | go... |
| ...but he had | to study. |
Dependent clauses are sometimes called "subordinate clauses", while dependent clauses might be referred to as "main clauses".
We might also classify clauses based on the kind of information they share. Relative clauses give more information about a noun, such as I knew in you're not the man I knew. Interrogative clauses ask a question directly (he asked, "Are you happy?") or indirectly (he wonders whether you are happy). Existential clauses in English typically begin with there is or there are. Conditional or hypothetical statements contain a protasis (if...) and an apodosis (then...).
| Who is he? | (direct interrogative clause) |
| ...who he is. | (indirect interrogative clause) |
| There's a mouse in this house! | (existential clause) |
| ...that I saw yesterday | (relative clause) |
| If you knew Latin... | (protasis) |
| ...you would be able to conjugate that verb. | (apodosis) |
Of these, notice that the apodosis, existential and direct interrogative clauses are independent. The others are subordinate clauses.
Practice Exercise
1) Is the verb finite or non-finite in the following phrases?
2) How many clauses can you find in the following sentences?
3) In the examples from the last question, which clauses are dependent? Which are independent? Which are small clauses?
4) Label the clauses you found above based on the type of information they share.
Phrases
A more consistent way to tackle sentences is to divide words into phrases. Phrases are made up of words, which are called constituents of a phrase. Every phrase contains a head, which is the major content or grammatical function word within that phrase. Complements occur next to the head and often clarify or modify the head. Specifiers qualify the head, and occur further from the head. Let's jump into some examples.
| head | + complement | + specifier |
| shirt | green shirt | his green shirt |
| book | book on the table | the book on the table |
Types of phrases
Phrases are named after their heads. A noun phrase is headed by a noun, a verb phrase by a verb and a prepositional phrase by a preposition. We often abbreviate phrases (noun phrase as NP, verb phrase as VP, prepositional phrase as PP, and sentence as S). Consider some examples.
| example | phrase type |
| the book | NP (noun phrase) |
| the Spanish book | NP (noun phrase) |
| in the Spanish book | PP (prepositional phrase) |
| goes to the store | VP (verb phrase) |
| gives it to him | VP (verb phrase) |
Study those sample phrases for a moment. Each phrase contains types of words you're already familiar with from our morphology lessons. We can see that a noun phrase in English necessarily contains a noun N and may include a specifier (the, an, his) and complement (red, difficult, on the table). Similarly, a verb phrase contains a verb plus its complements (her, to the store).
Embedding phrases
There's something else going on in those examples above. Look again at the PP in the Spanish book. Let's strip that example down to in the book. I've said that the head of that phrase is a preposition in, which makes the book a complement of the PP in the book. But didn't I also claim that the book is a noun phrase with a head noun book?
When we reason this way, we stumble upon a key feature of phrases: they can be built into other phrases. In other words, we embed phrases within phrases. From this perspective, all of syntax is simply a complex system of constituents embedded into phrases embedded into larger phrases. This makes our approach to clauses and sentences more systematic.
To make your understanding crystal clear, let's rebuild the prepositional phrase in the book from its component parts. We start with a noun book.
That noun is the head of a noun phrase book (0 book), with no specifier or complement. It's also the head N in the NP the book, with a specifier the but no
complement. We've now built the NP the book.
A prepositional phrase like in (in 0) contains a head preposition, but stands incomplete without a complement. We can embed the NP the book into the
prepositonal phrase to get in the book. Crucially, notice that the two phrases don't stand side by side. The noun phrase is embedded into the prepositional phrase.
Perhaps my words aren't clear enough to teach you how to build phrases. Fortunately, we have an easy way to set phrases apart and visually demonstrate how one phrase embeds into another.
We use [brackets] to open and close a syntactic unit, however large or small. Let's rebuild the same prepositional phrase above, this time with brackets.
Let's build two entire sentences to help you grasp the application of this concept. Recall that S stands for sentence.
Notice that I've still kept a parallel division between the subject [you]/[the dog] and the predicate [bought milk]/[fetches his bone]. However, subjects and predicates
are bracketed together, side by side, in the S. Also, you are not obliged to
bracket every possible piece of a phrase. If we're talking generally about the PP in the book, it makes sense to represent that phrase this way: [in the book]. On the other hand,
if we're talking about the NP [the book] embedded in that PP, it's best to set that NP apart with brackets: [in [the book]].
Lastly, consider that we could scrutinize the VP just as much as the NP. We could begin with the V [bought], then embed that into the VP [[bought][milk]].
1) Identify the head of the following phrases, and name the type of phrase: 2) What is the specifier and complement in each of the phrases in the last question? 3) Bracket the sentences below following the examples under embedding & bracketing above:
book
N (only)
the book
NP (specifier + N)
in the book
PP (preposition + NP)
Bracketing phrases
[book]
[N]
[the [book]]
[NP [N]]
[in [the [book]]]
[PP [NP [N]]]
[milk]
[NP]
[bought [milk]]
[VP [NP]]
[you][bought [milk]]
[NP][VP [NP]]
[[you][bought [milk]]]
[S[NP][VP [NP]]]
[bone]
[N]
[his [bone]]
[NP[N]]
[fetches [his[bone]]]
[VP[NP[N]]]
[the [dog]][fetches [his[bone]]]
[NP[N]][VP[NP[N]]]
[[the[dog]][bought [milk]]]
[S[NP[N]][VP[NP[N]]]]
Practice Exercise
Word order
Basic word order
Languages most often have a way of ordering the basic constituents of clauses - subjects, verbs and objects. Using this classification, we can begin to consider how languages arrange their words. In English, finite clauses have the order subject-verb-object (the dog ate the bone or he saw me). The subject and object are noun phrases, while the verb heads the VP which contains any object NPs.
In English, word order is fairly fixed. But notice that the verb comes first in direct interrogative clauses with have or be: are you happy (verb-subject rather than subject-verb).
The objects of verbs may be subdivided into direct objects and indirect objects. Direct objects are usually unmarked in English, but immediately follow the verb (like the book in he read the book). Indirect object are often expressed periphrastically, as prepositional phrases (like to him in gave the book to him).
Reordering words
When two words switch places, the switch is known as inversion. For example, in the question are you happy? from the last section, the subject you and the verb are don't follow the basic word order subject-verb. It is often said that the subject and verb are inverted when asking a question with have or be in English.
Another way to consider changing word order is to look for a word that moves, where it moves from and where it moves to. This concept has a simple name: movement. From this point of view, we might say that are in are you happy has moved from its original position in you are happy to a new position before the rest of the phrase
Expanding phrases
Speakers of all languages don't just rely on basic word order and movement to build sentences. We can expand simple sentences by adding material in the form of new words and phrases. For instance, we can build language into a language and, further, into a difficult language. Notice that the material we added to the head noun language all branched to the left.
Adjuncts are extra phrases like at the store or in September that we can add to the verb phrase bought it to form bought it at the store and bought it at the store in September. Notice that, this time, the material we added to bought it all branched to the right.
Keep an eye out for such right-branching and left-branching structures. They further affirm that sentences are layered and structured rather than flat and even.
Practice Exercise
1) Return to the previous practice exercise, and look again at the sentences in question 3. Identify the subject, verb and object in each sentence.
2) Rewrite each sentence as a question. Using the notion of inversion or movement, attempt to explain how you turned those statements into questions.
3) Two of those sentences include phrases that would traditionally be known as adjuncts. List those adjuncts. Do they branch to the left or the right?
Understanding & applying rules
Recall that we started these lessons with a bent towards understanding syntax descriptively rather than prescriptively. This doesn't mean that we shirk the idea of grammatical rules. Instead, descriptive grammar explains what speakers actually do with syntax. Let's take an example from English, then work to a descriptive rule that can explain the grammatical reasoning behind that example.
Common syntactic notation
First, let's quickly go over some simple symbols that allow us to illustrate syntax clearly. The asterisk * placed before an example means that the example is unacceptable to native speakers. Similarly, a question mark ? before an example indicates that the example is questionable to native speakers. As you already know, brackets [] enclose a phrase. As you recall from the grammar of words, the null symbol 0 represents material that is grammatically present but not spoken. Dashes separate morphemes. Variables like X,Y or Z stand for material that can be inserted into that position within a phrase.
| symbol | example |
| * | *Are happy you? |
| ? | ?If he went then I go, too. |
| [] | [[you] [learn [a lot]]] |
| 0 (zero) | 0 learn Spanish! |
| (variables) | X gave Y to Z |
A simple descriptive rule
Let's take another look at how English speakers turn statements with the verbs have and be into questions.
| She is a doctor. | Is she a doctor? |
| The time has passed quickly. | Has the time passed quickly. |
How can we describe this process? Initially, it seems simple: English speakers just switch the first and second words in the sentence. That works for is she tired. But the second example would give *time the.... So, our next move is to look at the categories of words - specifically, subject nouns and verbs. You'll likely suggest that English speakers are inverting the subject noun and the verb, which would satisfy both examples.
That description seems reasonable until we break the sentences into phrases. In declarative form, the first sentence has the structure [[NP] [VP [V] [NP]]] and the second [[NP] [VP [V]]]. When we invert the verb and the subject, we either have to pull the verb out of its verb phrase and decide where to insert it back into the structure, or we have to dismantle the verb phrase altogether. What's worse, the verb in the second sentence is actually a periphrastic has passed that splits when we invert the subject the time with the verb has.
Inversion seems to bold. What if, instead, we just say that have and be move. Since the rest of the verb phrase remains intact (seen clearly in the second example), it's safe to think we leave the VP structure as is while we simply extract the head verb and place it elsewhere. But where, exactly? We now have a vagabond [is] and an incomplete phrase [[she][X a doctor]?] the verb won't belong to the subject. Instead, we place it at the head of the entire sentence: [is] [[she] [___ a doctor]].
| Be/have question asking rule |
English speakers move finite be and have from the
verb phrase that contains them to the beginning of a sentence to ask a question. |
A simple generative rule
From a generative perspective, the rule we just came up with isn't powerful enough. If we want to have the ability to produce acceptable sentences that follow that question-asking rule, we apply the imperative logic used to address a processing machine, like a computer or a brain. This requires a small tweak that represents a huge shift in perspective:
| Be/have question asking rule |
Move finite forms of be and have from the
verb phrase that contains them to the beginning of the sentence that contains them. |
If we put a statement containing conjugated forms of be or have through a machine that applies the above rule, we should get a question.
Practice Exercise
1) Reconsider the rules above about asking a question with be and have. How do the following examples violate those rules?
2) Rewrite the simple rules given in this section to account for the three examples above.
Further types of words
In the intro to the grammar of words, you learned about many parts of speech. Those words are distinguished for their internal grammatical properties. In this section, let's look at groups of words we can distinguish based on the kind of information they share or the syntactic ("external") role they play.
Complementizers introduce a dependent clause with a finite verb that occurs within another verb phrase with a finite verb. Relatives introduce a dependent clause that occurs within a noun phrase.
Expletives fill an obligatory noun phrase when no other noun can, but don't really have any content. Deictics point to the distance between the speaker/addressee and a location. Interrogatives are question words, and help form direct and indirect questions.
| type of word | example |
| complementizer | She said that she was happy. |
| relative | He's the only kid that likes broccoli. |
| expletive | It is raining./There is a storm. |
| deictic | These ones are cheaper than those. |
| interrogative | Who has time to learn this stuff? |
Final observations & FAQ
Why do you focus on the basics of sentences? I'm interested in parts of speech, word roots and endings, and learning how nouns and verbs work.
This is a brief introduction to the foundations of syntax, the arrangement of words. If you're interested in the form of words, you should try my online course called the grammar of words. As I wrote at the top of the page, that course is a prerequisite for this intro to syntax. Morphology - the study of the forms of words - is a fascinating study at the heart of grammar. Enjoy!
You didn't talk very much about some topics relevant to syntax, such as generative linguistics or typology. How can I learn about those?
This course presents an overview of the fundamentals of sentence structure. I plan to cover more advanced topics, including generative syntax and X-Bar Theory (and their application to language learning) in upcoming lessons.
Do you have any other courses?
Yes, yes and yes! Nativlang.com contains a range of free lessons in specific languages, linguistics and language learning. Follow the links in the top right box on this page, or go to the homepage (nativlang.com) to see all lessons available.
Answers to the practice exercises
Practice Exercise (Sentences & clauses)
1) finite, finite, non-finite, finite
2) a) 2 (there's a lot + to learn in syntax); b) 2 (he asked me + if I arrived safely); c) 2 (if you can't find your way + please ask for help)
3) a) independent + dependent; b) independent + dependent; c) dependent + independent.
4) a) existential + relative; b) matrix + indirect interrogative; c) protasis + apodosis.
Practice Exercise (Phrases)
1) at (PP), read (VP), I (NP), question (NP), man (NP)
2) complement "the store", complement "the book", no specifier/complement, specifier "a" + complement "tough", specifier "the" + complement "in the mirror".
3) a) [[The [fastest [runner]]] [[finished [the [race]]][in [five [minutes]]]]] = [[NP [adjective [N]]] [VP[V[NP]][PP]]]
b) [[He] [speaks [Gaelic]]] = [S [NP] [VP [NP]]]
c) [[I] [[[learned] [some [syntax]]][on this site]]] = [S [NP] [VP [[V] [NP[N]]] [PP]]]
Practice Exercise (Word order)
1) a) subject: the fastest runner, verb: finished, object: the race
b) subject: he, verb: speaks, object: Gaelic
c) subject: I, verb: learned, object: some syntax
2) a) "Did the fastest runner finish the race in five minutes?"
b) "Does he speak Gaelic?"
c) "Did I learn some syntax on this site?"
In every instance I inserted the finite form of do, which is conjugated for tense and person. Then I invert the verb do with the subject to form question.
3) "in five minutes" in a) and "on this site" in c). Both are right-branching.
Practice Exercise (Rules)
1) Does she have five dollars? shows that questions with have do not always move have to the front of the sentence. Similarly, what is an expert? shows that be does not always move to the front of the sentence. Lastly, does she know that Tom has five dollars? shows us that we haven't considered examples where finite have occurs in a dependent clause within a question.
2) "Have" is moved when it forms part of the periphrastic construction "have" + past participle. Otherwise, the move is optional at best ("Has she five dollars?"). In other cases, "have" follows another question asking rule that involves periphrasis with verb "do". "Be" is moved to ask a question, but any explicit question words like "who" or "what" also move and take their place before "be" (notice that the declarative equivalent is "an expert is X", making "an expert" the subject). Lastly, we see from the third sentence that we can only retrieve and move "be" or "have" when it occurs in the matrix clause. So, we could rewrite the rule this way:
| Be/have question asking rule |
Move finite forms of be, and have in the
construction have + past participle, when they occur at the head verb of a matrix clause, to
the beginning of that matrix clause, but after any moved question words. |
Be careful to note that this rule doesn't solve the riddle entirely, it only accounts for the information at hand. The rule cannot adequately account for will he have lunch?. Rules in syntax are by their very nature works in progress.
Further resources & about the author
Refer to the menus on the right side of this page for a few handpicked, recommended resources. These include websites, books & other learning materials to help you learn about syntax.
The author of this guide has written books on linguistics and language learning, including Native Grammar: How Languages Work.